Acts of Paul and Thecla: Non-canonical story of a woman convert whose name is Thecla who left her fiancé to live a celibate lifestyle proclaimed by Paul. God miraculously delivered her from death.
Acts of John: Non-canonical stories about the exploits and encounters of John, Son of Zebedee, during his missionary works in Asia Minor.
Acts of Thomas: A non-canonical book of stories about the exploits and ascetic preaching of Thomas, of the supposed twin brother of Jesus. Stories take place in Asia Minor.
Adoptionism: The belief that Jesus was not divine (only human) and that God adopted him because he was the most righteous man who ever lived. Adoption took place at his baptism.
Aeons: Divine beings who make up the Pleroma in Gnostic religious, of which Jesus was considered to have emanated from as a fully divine being who appeared to be human. Considered to be a heresy by orthodox Christians.
Apocalypse: A literary genre that describes in symbolic fashion and often with bizarre visions the revealed nature of the world and heavenly mysteries that will become earthly realities.
Apocalypticism: A worldview held by some Jews and Christians about a dualistic world of Good and Evil that is a war with each other. God will intervene at the end of time and Good will prevail and will usher in the Kingdom of God. These views seem to begin to develop about two hundred years before Christ and continued to about the end of the first century A.D.
Apocrypha: The Greek for “hidden books,” that refer to non-canonical scriptures.
Apocalypse of Peter: A non-canonical work written by Peter that narrates the blessings of the saved and the torments of the dammed in the afterlife, as well as other stories.
Apostle: The Greek for “one who is sent,” and refers to early Christianity’s designation for emissaries of Christ who he sent to proclaim his message of salvation.
Apostolic Fathers: Group of early proto-orthodox apologist that wrote shortly after the death of the apostles.
Attitudes: In Jungian psychology, attitudes refer to the orientation of an individual’s energy, either outward toward the external world (extraversion) or inward toward the inner world of thoughts and feelings (introversion). The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), based on Jung’s theories, describes attitudes as fundamental preferences that shape how people interact with their environment and make decisions. These attitudes are central to understanding personality types and influence cognitive processes and behavior.
Archetypes: In Carl Jung’s analytical psychology, archetypes are universal, primordial images and themes that reside in the collective unconscious, a shared layer of the psyche common to all humans. Archetypes shape patterns of thought, behavior, and experience, emerging in myths, dreams, literature, and art. Examples include the Hero, who embarks on a transformative quest; the Shadow, representing repressed aspects of the self; the Wise Old Man, symbolizing guidance and wisdom; the Mother, embodying nurturing and protection; and the Trickster, who disrupts norms and provokes change. Jung believed that recognizing these archetypal patterns helps individuals understand themselves and their place in the world. This means we a physically attracted to archetypal images.
Archetypes arise out of repeated social behaviors, patterns of human interaction that occur so frequently and consistently across time and cultures that they become deeply embedded within the collective personality of a people. These patterns are internalized and, over generations, are unconsciously transmitted from one generation to the next, shaping how individuals perceive, interpret, and respond to the world around them. As a result, archetypes serve as universal templates for thought, feeling, and action within the human psyche.
Canon: The Greek for “rule” that refers the designation of a Catholic (Universal) recognized and accepted library of scriptural texts that has authority to reveal God’s Word.
Church Fathers: Group of early proto-orthodox church writers whose works were composed from the death of the apostles for about the next 150 years, although some Church apologist are known as Church Fathers well into third Century A.D.
Codex Sinaticus: Third century Greek manuscript of the Bible.
Consciousness: Is the capacity for the organism to distinguish itself from everything else.
Council of Nicea: First major council of the Church called by the Emperor Constantine in 325 A.D. to resolve doctrinal issues that resulted in the Nicaea Creed.
Covenant: An agreement (treaty) between two social or political parties. The ancient Jews used the term to describe the relationship that God established between himself and the Hebrew nation.
Cult: A Latin phrase that means “care of the gods.” The term generally refers to any set of religious or liturgical practices that are used to worship the gods.
Deutero-Pauline Epistles: Deutero means “secondary” and thus refers to Pauline Epistles that scholars believe were possibly not written by Paul. These include: Ephesians, Colossians, and 2 Thessalonians.
Disciple: A follower of one who teaches.
Docetism: Greek for “to appear,” that refers to the heresy that Jesus was not human but only appeared to be human but was a fully divine being.
Eastern Philosophy or Culture:
Ebonite’s: Jews who believed that Jesus was the Jewish Messiah and was adopted by God at his baptism. They assert that Jesus was fully human and not divine. They held to Jewish law and customs but because fulfilled the Law that did not practice sacrifices in the Temple.
Ego-Complex: is a theoretical psychological construct identifying particular mental functions consisting specifically of what Jung identifies as psychological functions and archetypes.
Endosomatic Awareness: also functioning fully at an unconscious state, adds the element of emotional tagging and subjective meaning to sensory information.
Essenes: Apocalyptically oriented first Century B.C group of monastic-like Jews who believed the priests of the Temple were illegitimate and part of the Sons of Darkness who would be destroyed by the Righteous One and the Sons of Lights in a cosmic war. The Essenes lived near the Dead Sea and were destroyed by the Roman army in 70 A.D. This is the group that produced the Dead Sea Scrolls and who some believe that John the Baptist might have been part of either directly or indirectly.
The founding of the Essenes coincides with the conquering of Egypt and Palestine by Alexander the Great and the infusion of the Greek culture into aspects of Hebrew culture. Egypt was ruled by the Ptolemies after being conquered by the Greeks332 BCE. The region between Syria and Israel was ruled from Syria. The military forces of Alexander the Great conquered Palestine and Egypt in 333 BCE. Ptolemies in Egypt and the Seleucids in Syria contested for Palestine. The attempt of the Seleucids to impose Hellenism on the Hebrews brought about a revolt under the leadership of the Maccabees, who set up a new Hebrew state in 142 BC.
Environmental Awareness: This is the manner that an organism encounters, assesses and unconsciously responds to the environment.
Extraversion: According to Carl Jung, extraversion describes a personality orientation where an individual’s energy is directed outward toward people, activities, and the external environment. Extraverts are typically sociable, talkative, and energized by interaction with others. In the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), extraversion is one of the primary dichotomies, indicating a preference for drawing energy from external sources and engaging actively with the outside world. Extraverts in this system are often described as outgoing, expressive, and action oriented. In essence it is psychic energy being projected inward, introversion, or outward, extraversion.
Fourth Philosophy: A group of Jews that advocated the violent over though of the Romans in Palestine, sometimes referred to as Zealots.
Galilean Hebrew: Jesus was a Galilean as well as many of his disciples. Galilee, a region in northern Palestine occupied about one third of Western Palestine, including Mount Herman in the Sea of Galilee. Most of the ministry of Jesus was performed in Galilee and the Jews of Galilee seemingly were very open to the teachings of Jesus. Under King David the region of Galilee was part of the Hebrew nation, but after King Solomon the northern kingdom with its 10 tribes separated from the southern kingdom of Judah and his two tribes. The 10 tribes were overrun by the Assyrians, who dispersed the people into regions that are still not yet known, and identified as the 10 lost tribes, and the only people that were left were common farmers and the poor. To the south of Galilee is the region of Samaria a people that the Judean Hebrew looked down upon because of their intermarriage with Assyrians, as well as other issues of religious matters like the development of their own temple.
Gnosticism: Early Christians, declared heretics, who maintained that the spark of the divine is entrapped in particular people who be acquiring a secret gnosis escape the evil of world and live eternally in paradise with the gods.
Gospel of the Ebonite’s: A non-canonical Ebonite gospel that was a conflation of Matthew, Mark and Luke that was redacted to match their theology, essentially no infancy narratives.
Gospel of James: Written by James, the brother of Jesus, about the miraculous events of Jesus’ birth and the early life of Mary. This gospel was not accepted into the cannon.
Gospel of the Nazareans: A non-canonical text similar to the Gospel of Matthew but without the infancy narrative and was used by the Ebonites.
Gospel of Thomas: A Gnostic non-canonical gospel containing 114 saying of Jesus with many of the saying only found in this gospel.
Gospel of Truth: A non-canonical Gnostic gospel that celebrates the joy of salvation provided in the mystical liberating knowledge brought by Jesus.
Greco-Roman World: The regions of the Roman Empire that were first occupied by the armies of Alexander the Great, (300 BC to 300 AD).
Hominid or Hominin: A general class of bipedal humanlike species that are separated from other apelike creatures.
Infancy Gospel of Thomas: A non-canonical gospel about Jesus as a young boy who has great powers and uses them mischievously.
Instincts: I identify instincts in a very broad sense referring to innate behavioral patterns that drive the organism towards survival. In the hominid, I suggest that over millions of years hominids evolved two components of instincts, physiological, and the other psychological. I also suggest there is a symbiotic relationship between them and that it is the foundation for spiritual awareness.
Instincts, an evolutionary process, serve as a biological foundation for human behavior, providing the underlying mechanisms that guide how individuals respond to their environment and interact with others. When it comes to morality, instincts play a crucial role: many moral behaviors, such as empathy, altruism, and fairness, can be traced back to instinctual drives that favor group cohesion and the well-being of the community. For example, the instinct to care for offspring or to help others in distress supports social bonds and mutual survival, forming the basis for moral codes and ethical systems throughout human history. Thus, while morality is shaped by culture, reflection, and reason, its roots can be found in the instinctual patterns that have evolved to promote harmonious and cooperative living among humans.
Introversion: According to Carl Jung, introversion is a psychological attitude characterized by a focus on one’s own inner thoughts and feelings rather than seeking stimulation from the external world. Jung described introverts as individuals who are energized by solitary activities and introspection, preferring reflection and depth over social interaction. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), which builds on Jung’s theories, defines introversion as a preference for drawing energy from internal sources and quiet environments, with introverts tending to be thoughtful, reserved, and more comfortable in small groups or alone than in large social gatherings. In essence it is psychic energy being projected inward, introversion, or outward, extraversion.
Irrational Function: An irrational function is a type of mathematical function that contains variables under a root symbol, most commonly a square root, but sometimes higher-order roots as well. Unlike rational functions, which are expressed as the ratio of two polynomials, irrational functions include expressions where the variable appears inside a radical, making their behavior and graphs more complex. These functions often have restricted domains, since the expression under the root must be non-negative (for even roots), and they arise frequently in algebra, calculus, and applications involving geometry or physics.
Jewish Targums: The Jewish Targums are Aramaic translations and paraphrases of the Hebrew Bible, or Tanach, created to make the scriptures accessible to Jewish communities after Aramaic replaced Hebrew as the common spoken language, beginning around the time of the Babylonian Exile (6th century BCE). Targums were developed for use in synagogue worship and study, allowing listeners to understand the readings and interpretations of the sacred texts. These translations not only rendered the original Hebrew into Aramaic but often included interpretive commentary, reflecting the theological and cultural concerns of the period. The Targums are closely associated with the Tanach, as they directly translate and explain its content, and they can be compared to the Septuagint, which is the Greek translation of the Hebrew scriptures created for the Hellenistic Jewish community. Both the Targums and the Septuagint played crucial roles in preserving and transmitting Jewish scripture and tradition in different linguistic and cultural contexts.
Language: When speaking about language I have five stages: the first stage is instinctual communications, the second stage is mythological language. These two stages develop prior to the development of consciousness. The next to evolve is oral common speech, followed by written language. The last stage is currently evolving to a new form of language and is identified by Walter Ong as electronic stage of language.
L Source: Source materials not found in Matthew and Mark but only in Luke that no longer exist.
Literacy: Literacy is the ability to read and write, as well as to understand, interpret, and communicate through written language. It forms the foundation for participation in literate cultures, where meaning, knowledge, and traditions are preserved and transmitted through texts. Literacy is closely related to the noetic, mental and intellectual, functions of a culture, as it expands the capacity for abstract thought, reflection, and critical analysis. In oral cultures, knowledge is shared and maintained through spoken words and memory, shaping a distinct oral noetic. The transition to literacy transforms the noetic landscape, enabling individuals and societies to record, organize, and analyze ideas in new ways, thus creating a literate noetic that interacts with and builds upon oral traditions.
M Source: Source materials not found in Luke and Mark but only in Matthew that no longer exists.
Marcionites: A group of people who in the 2nd century were declared heretics who followed a Christology believing that the God of the Old Testament, who is harsh, punishing and legalistic, is not the God of Jesus. Jesus’ God is the Father who is full of mercy and love, in whom salvation is manifested through Christ.
Mental: functions as those psychological processes that interpret neurological processing of sensory information that Jung identified as sense images.
Messiah: Literally is means “anointed one.” The meaning of the Hebrew word “Messiah” is the exact word “Christ” in Greek. Beginning about 100 years before Jesus the Jews began to have expectations of a messiah. They believed he would be a great warrior and king in the order of David. Others believed he would be a cosmic judge. Still others believed the messiah would a priestly interpreter of the Law and some thought he would be a great prophet like Moses.
Noetic: is all mental activity including intellect, emotions, memories and processing of sensible data, including what is defined as spiritual material.
Oral Noetic:
Noetic: is all mental activity including intellect, emotions, memories and processing of sensible data, including what is defined as spiritual material.
In cultural contexts, “noetic” refers to the collective intellectual and spiritual life of a society, encompassing the ways in which cultures understand, interpret, and transmit knowledge, values, and meaning. The noetic dimension shapes how communities form their worldview, express creativity, and construct systems of belief, integrating both rational thought and deeper intuitive or spiritual insights.
Scientifically, the term “noetic” is used to describe functions and phenomena related to human consciousness, cognition, and the higher-order mental processes such as reasoning, reflection, and abstract thinking. In psychology and neuroscience, noetic processes are studied to understand how the brain generates awareness, organizes experiences, and enables complex problem-solving. Some scientific inquiries also explore the noetic as it relates to the subjective experience of meaning, purpose, and self-awareness.
Non-overlapping magisterial : Often abbreviated as NOMA, this concept, introduced by Stephen Jay Gould, argues that science and religion each represent different areas of inquiry “magisteria” and address fundamentally separate domains of human experience: science covers the empirical realm, what the universe is made of and how it works, while religion addresses questions of meaning, purpose, and moral value. The magisteria do not overlap, and thus, do not conflict.
Notably, this is fundamentally a literate concept within the literate noetic; its structure and boundaries are articulated through textual analysis and intellectual discourse, restricting its usage to the domain of the literate noetic. It does not apply to electronic or oral noetics, as these operate within unified realities where such strict separation of domains is not maintained.
Oral Tradition: Oral tradition refers to the practice of transmitting knowledge, beliefs, history, customs, and stories from one generation to another by spoken word rather than by writing. It is a foundational aspect of cultures without written language, serving as a means to preserve collective memory, teach values, and maintain social cohesion. Through storytelling, song, and recitation, oral tradition ensures that important information and cultural identity are passed down, often adapting and evolving as it is retold over time.
Orality: Orality refers to the reliance on spoken word for communication, knowledge transmission, and cultural expression, as opposed to written forms. In oral societies, traditions, stories, values, and history are preserved and shared through speech, storytelling, song, and ritual performance, which fosters strong communal bonds and collective memory. Orality shapes cognitive patterns, emphasizing memory, rhythmic language, and context-dependent understanding, and remains foundational in many cultures even with the advent of literacy.
Paganism: Any of the polytheistic religions of the Greco-Roman world.
Paleontology: Paleontology is the scientific study of life in the geological past, primarily through the examination of fossils, which include preserved remains, traces, or imprints of ancient organisms. By analyzing these fossils, paleontologists reconstruct the history of life on Earth, deciphering evolutionary processes, climate changes, and the interactions between extinct species and their environments. This field bridges biology and geology, providing critical insights into how living things have adapted and diversified throughout Earth’s history.
Pastoral Epistles: Letters or books of the New Testament that are allegedly wrote by the Apostle Paul but scholars doubt that he actually wrote them. These include: First and Second Timothy and Titus.
Patristic Writings: Proto-Orthodox writings of the Church Fathers.
Personal Unconscious: Personal memories of an individual that are remembered, forgotten or repressed but only after consciousness is attained.
Pharisees: A sect of Jews who emphasized strict adherence to the Torah and developed a set of oral religious traditions to help follow their interpretation of the Law. Pharisees: The Pharisees had the support of a broader segment of the population. They developed customs and practices not found in the Bible and transferred many customs associated with the Temple to the home. They were understood to be the separated ones primarily meaning of their religious purity. They conceived of Judaism as a religion centered on the observance of Mosaic Law and its oral traditions. They believed in spiritual reality, such as the belief in spirits and angels the resurrection of the dead and the judgment: these beliefs were rejected by the Sadducees, which resulted in the Pharisees and the Sadducees being at odds with one another. Most importantly, Pharisees developed the concept of the Oral Law, an amorphous collection of religious practices, equal to and parallel to the Written Law, or the Torah. In their conception, both were given by God to Moses at Sinai. On the question of fate versus free will, the Pharisees took a middle ground. The Pharisees are mentioned several times in the New Testament, but usually in a negative way as overly concerned with laws and rituals and with a self-righteousness.
Phonetic Literacy: Phonetic literacy refers to the ability to read and write using a system in which written symbols (letters or characters) represent the individual sounds (phonemes) of spoken language. This skill enables individuals to decode and encode words by mapping sounds to letters, which is foundational in alphabetic languages like English. Phonetic literacy facilitates the development of reading fluency, spelling, and comprehension, and marks a key transition from oral and pictorial forms of communication to written expression that represents spoken language through systematic symbols.
Pre-consciousness: I mean moments of consciousness as the result of practicing rituals.
Pre-Oral Noetic: Pre-oral noetic refers to the cognitive and experiential state of the personality before the development of oral noetic abilities, such as spoken language or sound-based communication. This form of noetic is characterized by pre-verbal or nonverbal modes of expression, relying on gestures, facial expressions, bodily movements, or other sensory and intuitive forms of communication. In this stage, meaning is conveyed and understood without speech, reflecting a foundational level of awareness and interaction that precedes the use of words or vocal sounds.
Parable: The concept of the “parable” is deeply rooted in ancient Hebrew literature and tradition. Parables are succinct, didactic stories that illustrate moral or spiritual lessons through analogies and metaphors.
The ancient Hebrew word for “parable” is “מָשָׁל” (mashal). This term is derived from the root “משל” (mashal), which means “to be like” or “to compare.” The verb form “להמשיל” (le-mashil) translates to “to compare” or “to make a likeness.” Thus, at its core, a mashal is a comparison or a likeness, employed to convey deeper truths through familiar images and scenarios.
Participatory morality: Participatory morality is an approach to ethical life that emphasizes the active involvement of individuals and communities in the ongoing process of shaping, interpreting, and enacting moral values. Rather than viewing morality as a fixed set of rules imposed from outside, participatory morality recognizes that ethical understanding emerges through engagement, dialogue, and shared experience. It invites people to contribute their perspectives, reflect together on challenges, and co-create standards of right and wrong that are meaningful and responsive to their context. In this view, morality is dynamic, evolving, and rooted in communal participation, fostering a living tradition of ethical practice.
Potentiality: Potentiality refers to the inherent capacity or possibility for something to come into existence or to realize a particular state, quality, or outcome. It describes what could be, rather than what currently is, encompassing the range of latent abilities, tendencies, or conditions that may become actual under the right circumstances. In philosophical thought, potentiality is often contrasted with actuality, inviting reflection on the dynamic processes through which ideas, forms, or beings transition from mere possibility into reality, a theme central to discussions of growth, change, and the unfolding of meaning in moral, spiritual, and scientific contexts.
Viewed through the lens of cosmology, potentiality describes the universe as a field of unfolding possibilities, where the emergence of matter, energy, and life is not random but guided by intrinsic tendencies toward complexity and order that began at the instant of the creation of the universe. The cosmos itself embodies a dynamic process in which latent capacities, such as the formation of stars, planets, and biological life, gradually actualize over time, revealing a creative structure at the heart of existence. In the context of theistic evolution, potentiality signifies the ongoing interplay between divine intention and natural processes. Here, evolution is seen as a means by which God’s creative potential is continuously realized, allowing for the development of new forms and the flourishing of life. Theistic evolution harmonizes the scientific view of gradual change with a theological vision of purpose, suggesting that the potential for life and consciousness embedded in the universe is both a natural unfolding and a reflection of divine creativity. Thus, potentiality bridges scientific and spiritual perspectives, highlighting how the universe and life are shaped by both the laws of nature and the promise of what might yet become.
Process theology: Is a school of thought that understands God and the universe as being in process, dynamic, relational, and evolving over time. Rather than seeing God as immutable and unchanging, process theology emphasizes God’s ongoing interaction with creation, suggesting that both God and the world affect each other reciprocally.
Proto-Orthodox: The form of Christian theology and beliefs that were held and being formulated by the Christian Church during the first 200 years of the Church that would eventually become the beliefs of the Catholic Church.
Proto-Sinaitic Hebrew Alphabet: The Proto-Sinaitic Hebrew alphabet is an early script developed around 1800–1500 BCE in the Sinai Peninsula. It is considered the earliest known alphabetic writing system, forming the foundational link between Egyptian hieroglyphics and later Semitic scripts. The importance of the Proto-Sinaitic alphabet lies in its role as the precursor to Paleo-Hebrew, providing the structural basis and symbolic forms that would evolve into the writing system used for ancient Hebrew texts. This transition from pictographic to alphabetic script marked a significant advancement in linguistic expression and record-keeping, facilitating the transmission of cultural, religious, and historical traditions in the ancient Near East.
Psychological instincts: This is the direct product of the physiology of the organism interacting with its environment and how physiological change modifies the psychology of the organism; all for the survival of the organism.
Psychological Types: Psychological types refer to classifications of personality developed by Carl Jung, who proposed that people differ in how they perceive the world and make decisions, leading to distinct psychological orientations. Jung identified major types based on attitudes (extraversion and introversion) and functions (thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition). Building on Jung’s ideas, Katharine Cook Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers developed the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), which sorts individuals into 16 distinct personality types using four dichotomies: Extraversion/Introversion, Sensing/Intuition, Thinking/Feeling, and Judging/Perceiving. These frameworks are widely used to better understand individual differences in behavior, communication, and decision-making.
Psychological Types:
Psychological Types: Psychological types are classifications of personality originally developed by Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung. Jung proposed that people differ fundamentally in how they perceive the world and make decisions, and he identified key attitudes (extraversion and introversion) and functions (thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition) that shape these differences. Building on Jung’s theory, Katharine Cook Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers created the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), which categorizes individuals into 16 distinct personality types based on four dichotomies: Extraversion/Introversion, Sensing/Intuition, Thinking/Feeling, and Judging/Perceiving. The MBTI is widely used to help people understand themselves and others, improve communication, and support personal and professional development.
Psychological perspective according to Carl Jung: sin is not merely a moral failing but a psychic reality that signifies a separation from one’s true self or wholeness. Jung viewed sin as an estrangement from the Self, which is the central archetype of the personality, and believed that confronting and integrating the shadow aspects within the psyche is essential for personal growth and individuation. This process of acknowledging and reconciling one’s inner conflicts leads to greater psychological balance and maturity.
Q Source: Refers to an intellectual construct to account for a lost list of material, either written or oral, that was used by Matthew and Luke to supplement their own sources “M” and “L” along write the Gospel of Mark to construct their own gospels.
Restorative Justice: Embodied in the Hebrew concept of Tsedeq, refers to a restorative approach that emphasizes healing, reconciliation, and the repair of relationships harmed by wrongdoing. Unlike retributive systems, like Righteousness, focused on punishment, restorative justice seeks to restore wholeness within communities and individuals, recognizing the interdependence of moral, spiritual, and social well-being. It is concerned with reestablishing balance, dignity (primordial dignity is the group’s respect for what everyone brings to the survival of the group), and harmony through acknowledgment, accountability, and the pursuit of genuine renewal, all without judgement.
Scientific method in theological contexts: The scientific method in a theological context involves applying the principles of systematic observation, hypothesis formation, experimentation, and critical analysis, central to scientific inquiry, to questions and claims within theology. This approach seeks to examine religious doctrines and experiences using standards of evidence and reasoning, fostering a dialogue between faith and empirical investigation that can illuminate belief through careful, methodical scrutiny.
Second Temple: Origins, Politics, and Cultural Tensions: The Second Temple was constructed around 516 BCE after the return of the Jewish exiles from Babylon, standing as the spiritual and cultural center of Jewish life in Jerusalem for nearly six centuries. It replaced the First Temple, which had been destroyed by the Babylonians, and served as the focal point for religious practice, national identity, and communal gathering. Over time, the Temple underwent significant renovations, notably under Herod the Great, who expanded and beautified the complex, making it one of the architectural marvels of the ancient world.
During the period of Jesus, the political environment in Judea was marked by Roman imperial dominance. The Romans governed the region through a combination of direct rule and local client kings, such as Herod Antipas, and maintained control through military presence and strategic alliances with the Jewish priestly elites. This arrangement fostered a climate of tension and unrest, as many Hebrews resented foreign occupation and the perceived collaboration of some Jewish leaders with Roman authorities. Social and religious movements, including those led by Jesus of Nazareth, often arose in response to these political pressures, advocating for spiritual renewal and, at times, resistance to imperial rule.
The Second Temple era was also characterized by the significant presence of Greek-speaking Jews, or Hellenists, especially in urban centers and diaspora communities. The spread of Hellenistic culture following the conquests of Alexander the Great led to the adoption of Greek language, customs, and philosophical ideas by many Jews. This cultural infusion created divisions within the Jewish community, as traditional Hebrews, centered in Jerusalem, sometimes viewed the Hellenists with suspicion, concerned that Greek influences threatened the purity of Jewish law and ancestral traditions. Disputes between these groups surfaced in debates over ritual practices, scriptural interpretation, and the integration of foreign customs into Jewish life.
The destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans in 70 CE during the First Jewish, Roman War marked a decisive turning point in Jewish history. The Temple’s fall not only signaled the end of centralized Hebrew religious and political authority but also initiated a period of profound transformation for Judaism. With the loss of the Temple, sacrificial worship ceased, and the focus of religious life shifted toward rabbinic scholarship, synagogues, and the preservation of Jewish identity in diaspora. This event effectively ended the era of the Hebrews as a distinct national polity and ushered in new forms of Jewish religious and cultural expression, while also deepening the memory of the Temple as a symbol of loss and hope for future restoration.
Septuagint: The Septuagint is the ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, traditionally said to have been produced by seventy (or seventy-two) Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE. It was widely used in the Hellenistic Jewish world and became the primary Old Testament text for early Christians, shaping theological thought and scriptural interpretation in the Greek-speaking Mediterranean. The central message of the Tanach revolves around the concept of tsedeq, which encompasses not only righteousness but also justice, compassion, and restorative relationships within the community. However, the Greek language lacked a word that could fully capture the rich, relational, and communal dimensions of tsedeq. As a result, when the Septuagint translated tsedeq as “Righteousness” (dikaiosyne), essential aspects of its meaning were lost or altered. The Greek term carried connotations of strict legal or moral correctness, missing the Hebrew emphasis on restoration, empathy, and communal well-being. This linguistic limitation contributed to a shift in Christian theology, as the teachings of Jesus, rooted in the Hebrew understanding of tsedeq, were interpreted through the narrower Greek concept of righteousness, which often prioritized judgment and personal virtue over communal restoration and reconciliation.
Sin in Hebrew, Christian, Jewish, and Islamic Traditions: In the Hebrew Bible, the concept of sin (Hebrew: chata) primarily means “to miss the mark” or fail to live up to God’s commandments, often involving a breach of the covenant relationship with God and the community. Sin is seen as an act that disrupts harmony, justice, and righteousness (tsedeq) within society and with God. In the Christian tradition, sin is understood both as inherited (original sin) and as individual acts of disobedience against God’s will. Christianity emphasizes redemption and forgiveness through faith in Jesus Christ, viewing sin as the root of separation from God and spiritual death, but also as something that can be overcome through grace. In Judaism, sin (chet) is regarded as a violation of divine commandments (mitzvot), with a strong focus on personal responsibility, repentance (teshuvah), and making amends to restore one’s relationship with God and others. Jewish thought often distinguishes between sins against God and those against other people, both requiring different forms of atonement. In Islam, sin (dhamb or khatā) is understood as any act that goes against the commands of Allah as revealed in the Qur’an and Hadith. Islam teaches that humans are born without sin, and while all are prone to error, sincere repentance (tawbah) and seeking forgiveness from Allah can erase sins. Major (kabirah) and minor (saghirah) sins are distinguished, with certain sins requiring explicit acts of repentance and restitution.
Sadducees: A Jewish sect associated with the Temple cult of priests and scribes. Probably made up the Jewish aristocracy. The Sadducees were the main priestly group, supported by the nobility and aristocracy of Judea. Their approach to Jewish religion was essentially biblical; they believed that sacrifices in the Temple, as laid out in the Torah, was the sole manner by which God could be worshipped. They denied the existence of angels and the immortality of the soul. They also denied the existence of the Oral Law, a concept developed by the Pharisees. On the question of fate versus free will, the Sadducees believed in free will only. They did not believe in the resurrection of the dead.
Samaritan: Samaritan is the name given to the inhabitants of the disc Greek of Samaria with the name has deep religious overtones. To the Jews, from Judea and regions of Galilee, the Samaritans were a heretical and schismatic group of non-Jewish worshipers of the God of Israel. As such, they were detested even more than pagans. The origins of the schism between the Jews and Samaritans light deeply in early Israelite history. It reflects the reality that after King Solomon the nation of Israel split into two nations; Judah in the South, along with the tribe of Benjamin, and the remaining 10 tribes in the north known as Israel. The temple of Solomon, which was the center of Jewish rituals were the place at which the Ark of the Covenant rested in the Holy of Holies (Even though there is no record of Ark after the Babylonian exile). After the split the Samaritans created their own temple to Yahweh on mount Gerizim. During the Maccabean war against Seleucid Empire the Samaritans were aligned with them and not the Maccabees. Under the Maccabees the temple of the Samaritans was destroyed. In retaliation, the Samaritans defiled the temple in Jerusalem with the bones of the dead. It was not unusual for Galileans passing through Samaria to receive no hospitality and even to be assaulted.
Sanhedrin: The Sanhedrin as a body claimed powers that lesser Jewish courts did not have. As such, they were the only ones who could try the king, extend the boundaries of the Temple and Jerusalem, and were the ones to whom all questions of law were finally put.
Second Temple: Origins, Politics, and Cultural Tensions: The Second Temple was constructed around 516 BCE after the return of the Jewish exiles from Babylon, standing as the spiritual and cultural center of Jewish life in Jerusalem for nearly six centuries. It replaced the First Temple, which had been destroyed by the Babylonians, and served as the focal point for religious practice, national identity, and communal gathering. Over time, the Temple underwent significant renovations, notably under Herod the Great, who expanded and beautified the complex, making it one of the architectural marvels of the ancient world.
During the period of Jesus, the political environment in Judea was marked by Roman imperial dominance. The Romans governed the region through a combination of direct rule and local client kings, such as Herod Antipas, and maintained control through military presence and strategic alliances with the Jewish priestly elites. This arrangement fostered a climate of tension and unrest, as many Hebrews resented foreign occupation and the perceived collaboration of some Jewish leaders with Roman authorities. Social and religious movements, including those led by Jesus of Nazareth, often arose in response to these political pressures, advocating for spiritual renewal and, at times, resistance to imperial rule.
The Second Temple era was also characterized by the significant presence of Greek-speaking Jews, or Hellenists, especially in urban centers and diaspora communities. The spread of Hellenistic culture following the conquests of Alexander the Great led to the adoption of Greek language, customs, and philosophical ideas by many Jews. This cultural infusion created divisions within the Jewish community, as traditional Hebrews, centered in Jerusalem, sometimes viewed the Hellenists with suspicion, concerned that Greek influences threatened the purity of Jewish law and ancestral traditions. Disputes between these groups surfaced in debates over ritual practices, scriptural interpretation, and the integration of foreign customs into Jewish life.
The destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans in 70 CE during the First Jewish, Roman War marked a decisive turning point in Jewish history. The Temple’s fall not only signaled the end of centralized Hebrew religious and political authority but also initiated a period of profound transformation for Judaism. With the loss of the Temple, sacrificial worship ceased, and the focus of religious life shifted toward rabbinic scholarship, synagogues, and the preservation of Jewish identity in diaspora. This event effectively ended the era of the Hebrews as a distinct national polity and ushered in new forms of Jewish religious and cultural expression, while also deepening the memory of the Temple as a symbol of loss and hope for future restoration.
Septuagint: The Septuagint is the ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, traditionally said to have been produced by seventy (or seventy-two) Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE. It was widely used in the Hellenistic Jewish world and became the primary Old Testament text for early Christians, shaping theological thought and scriptural interpretation in the Greek-speaking Mediterranean. The central message of the Tanach revolves around the concept of tsedeq, which encompasses not only righteousness but also justice, compassion, and restorative relationships within the community. However, the Greek language lacked a word that could fully capture the rich, relational, and communal dimensions of tsedeq. As a result, when the Septuagint translated tsedeq as “Righteousness” (dikaiosyne), essential aspects of its meaning were lost or altered. The Greek term carried connotations of strict legal or moral correctness, missing the Hebrew emphasis on restoration, empathy, and communal well-being. This linguistic limitation contributed to a shift in Christian theology, as the teachings of Jesus, rooted in the Hebrew understanding of tsedeq, were interpreted through the narrower Greek concept of righteousness, which often prioritized judgment and personal virtue over communal restoration and reconciliation.
Scribes: Anyone who was a copyist. The job of making copies and writing letters in the ancient world was the job of scribes. Almost all scribes could read and write.
Scribes, Jewish: Probably part of the Jewish aristocracy who were highly educated and could read and write Hebrew, and most likely Aramaic and Greek. Seem to be associated with the Temple.
Secret Gospel of Mark: A non-cononivsl second edition of Mark’s Gospel but only known to the spiritually elite of Alexandria, Egypt.
Self: is the central organizing archetype of the personality.
Sin (Traditional Understanding): Traditionally, sin is understood as a moral transgression or an act that violates divine law or ethical standards established by a religious tradition. In Judeo-Christian contexts, sin is often seen as disobedience to God and a breach in the relationship between humans and the divine. It encompasses both actions and intentions that fall short of moral or spiritual ideals and is frequently described as a separation from God’s will or commandments.
Sin in Tsedeq: Within the framework of tsedeq, the Hebrew concept of right relationship with God, sin is understood not only as a violation of divine law but also as a disruption of the harmonious and just relationships intended by God. In this view, sin is anything that undermines the integrity, balance, and fairness that tsedeq seeks to establish within the community and creation. Thus, sin is seen as failing to embody or enact righteousness, distancing oneself and others from the ideal of living justly and in right relationship with God, neighbor, and the world.
Somatic Awareness: likely beginning with touch long before hominids evolve and even before becoming mammals over 65 million years ago. This sense of awareness goes back to the beginnings of our evolutionary trek on earth. Somatic Awareness is the first way of being aware of environs and working out ways of surviving. In its simplest form, it is sensory response to stimuli, and I assert it will be the only form of awareness for 10s of millions of years. I also suggest that Somatic Awareness is original sense that the brain as it was evolving was organized around.
Stasis and Potentiality: An important philosophical partner to stasis is the concept of potentiality, the latent capacity for change, growth, or realization. Even in moments of apparent stillness, the seeds of transformation may be present, awaiting the right conditions to emerge. Potentiality reminds us that stasis is rarely absolute, beneath the surface, processes of adaptation, renewal, and creativity quietly at work.
Synagogue: A Greek work that means “being brought together.” This is the place of Jewish worship outside of the Temple. Every Jewish community would have a synagogue.
Synoptic Gospels: The gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke. Synoptic, Greek for seen together, reading of these gospels is to view side-by-side noting their similarities.
Theistic Evolution: Theistic evolution is the belief that the process of evolution is compatible with faith in a divine creator. This view holds that God works through the natural mechanism of evolution to bring about the diversity of life on earth. Rather than seeing evolutionary science and religious belief as opposed, theistic evolution interprets natural laws and divine intention as working together in the unfolding of creation. This perspective harmonizes scientific understanding with spiritual belief, allowing for both acceptance of evolutionary theory and faith in God’s ongoing presence and creativity.
Tradition, as dynamic process: Tradition, viewed as a dynamic process, is not a static inheritance but a living current that evolves through continual reinterpretation and participation. Rather than merely preserving the past unchanged, tradition unfolds within communities as a conversation across generations, shaped by memory, innovation, and the collective response to new circumstances. Each generation receives, critiques, and reimagines what has come before, weaving fresh meaning and relevance into inherited forms. In this way, tradition acts less as a fixed script and more as an unfolding narrative, responsive and adaptive, sustaining continuity while allowing for growth and transformation.
Transcendence: In its traditional theological sense, refers to the divine as radically other, beyond and above the confines of the material world, untouched by the limitations of time, space, or human comprehension. The transcendent is that which dwells in the absolute, remaining wholly distinct from creation, ineffable and ungraspable, a source of ultimate meaning that lies outside and apart from the flux of worldly existence. Within this framework, the sacred is encountered as a distant summit, sublime, immutable, and enigmatic, inviting awe and reverence as much from its hiddenness as from its revealed power.
Yet, when viewed through the lens of “potentiality,” transcendence sheds its remoteness and becomes the ever-present horizon of what might become. Rather than existing solely as an unreachable apex, the transcendent is discovered as the wellspring of latent possibilities, the subtle force that stirs beneath apparent stasis and calls forth the emergence of new realities. Potentiality transforms transcendence from a static, distant concept into a dynamic promise, an energy suffusing all things, inviting growth, transformation, and the realization of what has not yet come to be. In this framing, the transcendent is not only beyond but also within, a latent vitality pulsing through tradition, nature, and consciousness, waiting, like seeds in fallow ground, for the right conditions to unfold into being.
Tanakh (Tanach): The Tanakh, also spelled Tanach, is the canonical collection of Jewish scriptures. The name is an acronym formed from the initial letters of its three main sections: Torah (Law or Teaching), Nevi’im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings). Together, the Tanakh comprises the Hebrew Bible, which serves as the foundational sacred text for Judaism and is highly influential in Christianity as the Old Testament. It contains historical narratives, poetry, laws, prophecies, and wisdom literature, reflecting the religious, cultural, and ethical heritage of the Jewish people.
Torah: A Hebrew word that means “Guidance or Direction.” It refers to the Law given to the Hebrew Nation by God to guide the nation with the Law of God. It is contained in the first five books of the Old Testament: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.
Tsedeq: Hebrew biologically social architecture revealed through psychological/emotional experience of God eminent and transcended, how God functions within the nation and individual through the characteristic of God as it regards humanity and primate lineage, as therefore the seat of the being created in the “image of God.” These characteristics are compassion, empathy, restorative justice, instinctual guilt as the means to initiate restorative justice via forgiveness and reconciliation that is essential for dignity, freedom, without judgement. All these characteristics are primordial through the species of primates but being more robust in the Old-World Monkeys and continue to become a necessity in the Homo species with the infusion of tools into hominins social order. Outside of tsedeq, God is imminent in all things.
Western Philosophy and Culture: Western philosophy and culture refer to the intellectual traditions, values, and social norms that have developed primarily in Europe and the Americas. Characterized by an emphasis on individualism, rational inquiry, scientific reasoning, and the pursuit of objective truth, Western thought often focuses on analytical logic and debate. In contrast, Eastern philosophy and culture, originating in regions such as China, India, and Japan, tend to emphasize harmony, holistic understanding, interconnectedness, and the integration of spiritual and practical life. While Western traditions often prioritize personal autonomy and critical analysis, Eastern traditions may value community, balance, and inner cultivation, highlighting a fundamental divergence in worldview and approach to knowledge.
Will (Hebrew Concept): In Hebrew thought, the concept of will is often expressed through the term “ratzon,” which refers to desire, intention, or the inner inclination toward action. Ratzon is seen as a deeply personal drive that aligns one’s choices and behaviors with divine purpose or moral integrity. In biblical and rabbinic literature, God’s will (ratzon Hashem) is understood as the guiding force behind creation and ethical living, and individuals are encouraged to align their own will with God’s, fostering harmony and righteousness within themselves and the community.
Will (Western Understanding): In Western philosophy, the concept of will is typically associated with the capacity for conscious choice, determination, and self-direction. Philosophers such as Immanuel Kant and Arthur Schopenhauer have emphasized will as a central aspect of human autonomy and moral agency, often linking it to rational decision-making and the pursuit of individual goals. Will is regarded as the driving force behind intentions and actions, reflecting personal freedom and the ability to act in accordance with one’s values or desires, sometimes in opposition to external influences or internal impulses.
Zealots: zealots, as reported in the New Testament, were a loose collection of small sects of Jews who were trying to overthrow the Romans and to drive them out of their homeland. They are identified by their extreme sense of nationalism. The idea of a Messiah was a military leader a new King David, who can organize the Jews into an army that would drive out the Romans. As a group they were looked at by ordinary Jews with disdain because there really warfare caused many problems for the people. One of Jesus’ disciples, Simon, was called the Zealot. He was probably a former member of this sect. Many have tried to draw a connection between zealots and the community at Qumran because of that community’s zeal for purification of the temple and their ideas of a cosmic war between the sons of light in the sons of darkness.